Books of Account: What They Are, How to Maintain Them, and What the Law Requires in the U.S.

Books of account are the organized system where a business records, classifies, and supports all its financial transactions. They are not merely a formality for accountants — they are the foundation for operational decisions, cash flow projections, tax compliance, and audit defense. If you operate or plan to operate in the United States, understanding what books of account include, how they are structured, and which practices to adopt can save you time, money, and headaches.

What Are Books of Account and Why They Matter

In simple terms, books of account are the collection of records that reflect income, expenses, assets, liabilities, and equity. They are the financial “memory” of the business and make it possible to:

• Recognize income and costs consistently.
• Prepare reliable financial statements.
• Reconcile bank accounts, inventories, and payables/receivables.
• Substantiate transactions before tax authorities and third parties (banks, investors, suppliers).
• Establish and enforce internal policies for expenses, travel, fixed assets, and depreciation.

Essential Components of Books of Account

Technology may simplify bookkeeping, but the underlying structure remains the same:

1) Journal.
Records each transaction chronologically with its debit, credit, date, account, and brief explanation. It is the entry point for all operations.

2) General ledger.
Groups transactions by account (Sales, Banks, Vendors, etc.), showing balances and accumulated movements.

3) Subsidiary ledgers.
Breakdowns by client, supplier, cost center, project, fixed asset, or inventory. These make the general ledger totals auditable.

4) Supporting documents.
Invoices, receipts, vouchers, contracts, bank statements, payroll, credit/debit notes, purchase orders, and delivery notes — the evidence for every entry.

5) Financial statements.
Derived from the books of account, they summarize performance and financial position: income statement, balance sheet, and, when applicable, cash flow statement.

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Accounting Basis: Cash vs. Accrual (and a Note on U.S. GAAP)

The cash basis recognizes income when received and expenses when paid. It’s simple, suitable for many small businesses, and helps manage cash flow.
The accrual basis recognizes income and expenses when they are earned or incurred, regardless of cash movement. It provides a more accurate picture of business performance and facilitates margin and inventory analysis.
In more demanding contexts — investors, financing, audits — companies often adopt U.S. GAAP, the most recognized accounting framework in the country. Choosing your accounting basis early helps avoid costly restatements later.

Electronic Books of Account: Compliance Essentials

Using accounting software or an ERP system is perfectly acceptable, as long as you:

• Preserve traceability just like in paper form: entry → ledger → subledger → document.
• Maintain access controls and audit trails (who creates, edits, approves).
• Ensure data backup and retention (copies, encryption, disaster recovery).
• Can export reports and evidence if requested by an authority or bank.

Digitalization does not replace order — if an entry lacks clear supporting evidence, it doesn’t exist.

Record Retention: How Long to Keep Them

Retention periods vary by document type and jurisdiction. In practice, most companies keep their accounting, tax, and banking records for four to seven years. Beyond the exact figure, the golden rule is to organize everything by year, transaction type, and counterpart, ensuring it’s easy to locate.

Best Practices to Strengthen Your Books of Account

Monthly bank reconciliation.
All bank accounts and payment gateways must reconcile. Investigate and document any differences.

Written accounting policies.
Define capitalization vs. expense criteria, useful life and depreciation methods, petty cash, discounts, write-offs, and inventory valuation.

Inventory control.
Maintain stock cards, consistent valuation (FIFO or average cost), and physical counts.

Fixed assets and depreciation.
Record purchase date, cost, improvements, depreciation method, and disposal. Keep schedules updated.

Related parties.
Document contracts and terms of transactions with partners, subsidiaries, or affiliates. Economic substance and consistency matter.

Centralized documentation.
Avoid isolated information silos. A single repository per fiscal year saves time and simplifies audits.

Disciplined monthly closing.
Establish a checklist: sales and expense cutoffs, provisions, reclassifications, reconciliations, subledger reviews, and financial statements.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Mixing personal and business expenses. Keep separate accounts from day one.
• Delaying record entry. Postponing tasks “for later” inflates closing costs and errors.
• Not keeping receipts. Without proof, an entry is vulnerable. Digitize and label consistently (date_type_vendor_amount).
• Changing criteria without documentation. Policies ensure consistency — justify and record any changes.
• Neglecting subledgers. They bridge numbers with reality (clients, suppliers, projects). If they don’t match, there’s a problem.

How to Implement Organized Books of Account (Step-by-Step)

1. Define your accounting basis (cash or accrual) and document it.
2. Design a chart of accounts that’s clear, scalable, and management-report friendly.
3. Select your tool (software/ERP), set up users, approvals, and numbering.
4. Standardize document capture (naming, year/month folders, OCR if applicable).
5. Write and share your accounting policies with the team.
6. Close monthly with a checklist: reconciliations, provisions, depreciation, subledger review, and statements.
7. Conduct internal quarterly audits: sample evidence, bank cross-checks, inventory and asset validation.
8. Back up and store data in at least two locations (cloud + encrypted local copy).

Do You Need a Bookkeeper, Accountant, or CPA?

It depends on your business stage and complexity. A bookkeeper handles daily records, reconciliations, and subledgers. An accountant applies technical criteria and prepares statements. A CPA adds regulatory authority (audits, reviews) and representation before tax agencies. Many businesses combine roles — operational order first, expert oversight as they grow.

Indicators of Healthy Books of Account

• Timeliness: monthly closings completed promptly.
• Integrity: reconciliations without old discrepancies; subledgers match the ledger.
• Traceability: any figure in a statement can be verified in one or two clicks.
• Consistency: policies applied the same way over time.
• Accessibility: evidence retrievable instantly; nothing hidden in someone’s inbox.

Tools and Criteria for Choosing Accounting Software

Look for bank integrations, sales tax management by state, multi-currency support, inventory tracking, user permissions, customizable reports, and a detailed audit trail. Before migrating, test with real data and set a clear cut-off plan (start date, opening balances, reconciliations) to avoid duplication.

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Connection Between Books of Account and Taxes

Books of account feed your tax returns. If records are outdated or unsupported, your tax position weakens. The best approach: complete the accounting close first, then prepare tax filings based on reconciled figures. If operating across multiple states, track nexus and local obligations (sales tax, payroll, licenses).

Conclusion

Maintaining reliable books of account isn’t a corporate luxury — it’s an enabler of decision-making, financing, and compliance. Whether starting up or scaling, define your accounting basis, standardize your policies, and ensure every number has documentation. This discipline minimizes risk and strengthens growth with solid data.

If you’re formalizing or expanding your business operations in the U.S., Openbiz can guide you through company formation and structured administrative and tax management from day one. Let’s work together to make your accounting a strategic advantage.

Frequently Asked Questions

1) What’s the difference between books of account and financial statements?
Books of account detail every transaction (journals, ledgers, subledgers, and evidence). Financial statements summarize that information to show business performance and position over a period.

2) How long should I keep records?
It depends on document type and jurisdiction. Many businesses retain books and receipts for four to seven years. Organize them by year and transaction type to ensure accessibility.

3) Can I manage my books of account in Excel?
You can start with spreadsheets if you maintain order, traceability, and evidence. However, as your business grows, accounting software with bank integrations and audit logs becomes safer and more efficient.

4) Which accounting basis suits me: cash or accrual?
The cash basis simplifies cash flow and fits smaller businesses; the accrual basis offers more accurate financial insight. Choose based on complexity, investor or bank requirements, and long-term goals.

5) What do auditors typically request?
Full traceability: entries, subledgers, and evidence. Bank reconciliations, inventories, contracts, payroll, fixed assets, and written accounting policies. Any figure that can’t be proven is a risk point.

6) Can I digitize all receipts and discard paper versions?
Yes, if you ensure clarity, backup, and access. Confirm your jurisdiction’s requirements and maintain consistent archiving standards.